England

• Early English History (c. 500BC - 1066)


Originally populated by dark Mediterranean people, probably Iberian, England suffered various migration and invasions:
 

• The Briton Celts, to which the islands owe their name.
• Roman Conquest: Although Romanization was not lasting, Roman influence was considerable and survived in Welsh Christianity, which later expanded to Ireland (St Patrick, 5th c.)
• Anglo-Saxon invasions, which made the Celts retire in Wales and Cornwall. The Christianization of the island (St Agustine, 6th c.) brought about the flourishment of art.
• Scandinavian invasions (Vikings and Danes): Although England was divided between Saxons and Vikings (Danelaw), Scandinavian people adapted themselves and adopted Anglo-Saxon habits. Their language (Old Norse) was very similar to Old English. However, Viking attacks were renewed and finally Saxon resistance collapsed.
• Norman invasions: Led by Duke William of Normandy (William the Conqueror), the English were defeated at the battle of Hastings (1066). French nobility replaced native aristocracy and French became the language of the court and upper-classes.
• Later Middle Ages (1154 - 1485)


Gradually, the English and French cultures were linked. However, the enormous power of the king (England and large territories in France) was challenged by the French king and the Church. By the end of the 11th century, Normandy was lost under the reign of King John and the king's power was subjected to the Church by the Magna Carta. His son, Henry III, tried to recover his father power, but he was defeated and forced to give power over to Simon de Monfort, who called a parliament with knights and burghers from each borough. Nevertheless, he was killed and monarchy was restored in 1264.

During the 13th century Parliament emerged and Universities were established as independent institutions (Oxford, Cambridge). Wales was conquered, but not Scotland. There followed a time of wars, the Hundred Years War against France (14th-15th c.) and the War of the Roses (1455-85) between the Houses of York and Lancaster, which led to the elimination of the old nobility from political influence and the creation of a new aristocracy of court officials under the Tudor kings.
 

• The Tudors (1485 - 1603)


Henry VII ended with the War of Roses and restored order and royal authority. He also strengthened central power by developing an efficient administration through a central council distinct from Parliament, settled foreign controversies through a skillful marriage policy and encouraged foreign trade. His son, Henry VIII, separated the Church of England from Rome with the support of Parliament and became the Head of the Church. He also had to face rebellions both in Ireland and Scotland. Religious problems were renewed with the reign of Mary Tudor, who attempted a ruthless restoration of Catholicism and made England subservient to Spain through her marriage to Philip II. As a result England lost Calais.

When Elizabeth I was crowned, she had to settle religious problems, conspiracies against her led by Mary Stuart, Queen of the Scots, and acute economic problems. However, the Elizabethan Age was a productive age in literature, a period of economic expansion and the beginning of the establishment of colonies in other continents. This colonial trade provoked colonial rivalry, which finally brought about war with Spain. The Spanish Armada was defeated in 1588.
 

• Stuart Age (1603 - 1689)


James VI of Scotland and I of England brought about the dynastic union between England and Scotland, although Scotland retained its own parliament, church, law and army. Religious conflict led to Puritan emigration and colonization in America (Mayflower, 1620). The Northern county of Ireland was taken from the Irish earls and settled by Scottish Presbyterians. James tried to avoid problems with Spain. However, he had conflicts with the Parliament, which was frequently dissolved. His son Charles I was involved in wars with France and Spain unauthorised by the Parliament. He had many problems with the Parliament and for 11 years he tried to rule on his own. In 1642 a new Parliament was elected formed by the king's opponents. It soon became stronger than the king and set forth some constitutional reforms. This conflict led to three years of struggles (Civil War) until Charles was executed in 1649. The government was chiefly in the hands of Cromwell and other leader generals. Irish resistance and Scottish rebellion were suppressed. Attempts to restore the Parliament failed and a Protectorate (1653-60) was established with Cromwell as Lord Protector. During this period English control of the Seas was established. Cromwell's internal policy based on puritan austerity, high taxation and religious tolerance was highly unpopular. He was succeeded by his son, who abdicated a year later.

Tired of military rule, the English recalled Charles II, the most popular Stuart king. There was revenge on the puritans and the Anglican Church was re-established. The first war with Holland ended with the cession of New Amsterdam (New York) and Guinea. However, Charles' Catholic tendencies soon aroused opposition. He was succeeded by James II, an extreme Catholic who was very unpopular and forced to leave.
 

• Beginning of Constitutionalism and Colonial Expansion (1689 - 1760)


James' daughter Mary (Protestant) and her husband William of Orange were proclaimed joint sovereigns in 1689. They signed the Declaration of Rights, which made England the first constitutional monarchy of Europe. The Parliament was given more power and colonialism was expanded. Parliamentary union with Scotland was effected in 1707, during Queen Anne's reign, although the ecclesiastical, legal and educational systems have remained separate. On Anne's death, George I and later George II (House of Hanover, changed to Windsor during World War I) were crowned, although they depended on Whig's rule, which lasted for 46 years. During this conservative period there was prosperity and peace. However, England's involvement in various European conflicts caused Walpole's fall (especially due to unsuccessful colonial fights with Spain). He was succeeded by Pitt, and during his government England was involved again in a colonial war with France. As a result, England acquired Canada from France, the territory between the Appalachians and the Mississippi, some West Indian islands and parts of India.
 

• Age of Revolutions (1760 - 1837)


George III took on personal rule. During his reign England was involved in the American War of Independence (1775-83), caused by growing tax demands and a growth of democratic spirit of the settlers. Spain and France (pro-American) received Florida and Minorca and colonies in western Africa respectively. It was the time of the industrial and agricultural revolutions, which caused the misery of the working classes. The end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century were marked by Tory governments, which maintained their power through successful suppression of revolutionary movements and energetic conducting of Napoleonic Wars.
 

• Victorian Age (1837 - 1901)


George’s IV reign brought about general discontentment, which finally led to liberal and social reforms (abolishment of slavery, trade unions movement, work legislation). He was succeeded by Queen Victoria, whose long reign (1837-1901) and the fact that she restored the crown's prestige account for the term "Victorian Age". She transferred absolute monarchy into a constitutional one. The Victorian Age was marked by industrial evolution, aggressive imperialism, the growth of well-off middle classes and a strict morality. However, the situation for working classes and the poor was quite difficult. There were parliamentary, educational (education was made compulsory up to the age of 10), administrative and social reforms. There were numerous colonial acquisitions and annexations. The end of the 19th century also saw the rise of Socialism and the Labour movement.
 

• World Wars (1901 - 1945) and Post-war period ( 1945 - )


The first half of the 20th century was marked by the two world wars, which caused economic depression, growing inflation and unemployment. Ireland gained independence in 1922 and became a Republic in 1937, although Northern Ireland chose to remain part of the United Kingdom. After the World War II, there came a period of social welfare, reconstruction and austerity. It was also a period of European and Atlantic integration, while, on the other hand, the disintegration of the British Empire started. The last decades have been marked by general recession and steady rising of unemployment and social discontent.

Although British society has changed considerably since the WWII, it still maintains a hidden residual class-consciousness (e.g. Nobility still has a separate political representation in the hereditary House of Lords without undergoing election). On the other hand Britain's racial problem grew out of its imperial heritage. Until 1962, citizens from any Commonwealth nation could settle in Britain without formalities. With growing unemployment, these immigrants became competition to British working class. Therefore since 1962, legislation has restricted immigration.

 
      Scotland
 
Originally inhabited by Gaelic Celts, Scotland suffered the invasions of the Romans, the Scots from Ireland, the Angles and the Vikings. It finally became a unified Kingdom in 1034. Despite its dynastic and parliamentary union with England (1603, 1707), Scotland has a very strong sense of its importance as an independent cultural unit within the United Kingdom (separate Calvinist Church and independent law and educational systems). The extinction of the clan system after 1745 eventually doomed the Gaelic language, which has only survived in parts of the Highlands and the Hebrides. Scotland is still ruled from London, where it is represented by a Secretary of State for Scotland, and whose responsibilities are exercised by five departments in Edinburgh. An important source of revenues is tourism and the discovery of great oil resources in British waters has revolutionized life in the Aberdeen area and the Shetlands and Orkneys. Independentist movements have not been backed even by the Scots.
 
      Wales
 
Originally inhabited by Iberians, it suffered the invasions of Britannic Celts, the Romans and the Anglo-Saxon, who called them "wealas" (i.e. foreign). Although Wales was conquered by the English as early as the 13th century (in 1285 the conquest was complete), the inaccessible nature of the interior prevented English influences from penetrating far inland. However the general mobility of our age has largely wiped out physical and linguistic differences. The number of Welsh speakers is steadily declining, although there has been considerable local pressure to revive the Welsh language (literary works, TV programmes in Welsh,...). Wales has had a very strong non-conformist tradition and its main religious organizations are the Presbyterian Church of Wales and the Union of Welsh Independents. Wales has a certain measure of home rule, as in 1964 a Secretary of State for Wales was appointed, with a seat in the Cabinet and advised by a Welsh Council nominated by him. Independentist movements have far less backing than in Scotland.
 
      Northern Ireland
 
After a long struggle for independence, Ireland became a free state in 1922. Northern Ireland, which had a Protestant majority, decided to remain a part of the United Kingdom. Ulster was granted its own regional Parliament and its own government, which, however, was subject to the Parliament in Westminster. As the Catholic minority felt discriminated, it began to voice its demands in the 1960's through the Civil Rights Movement. In 1969 Protestant extremists, fearing a reunion with Catholic Ireland (Eire), began to attack civil rights marchers and Catholic areas in Belfast and Londonderry. In 1972 the British Government introduced direct rule under a Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. It seems now that IRA extremists have given up armed fight against Catholics.

Originally inhabited by Mediterranean people and Gaelic Celts they suffered the Vikings' invasion. In the 12th century, Dermott McMurrough brought the Normans to help him become king, but in 1175 Henry II became Lord of Ireland. He distributed the land among his noblemen and got a papal permission to conquer Ireland.  During the 13th and 14th centuries the Irish joined their forces with the Scots' to avoid Anglo-Norman integration. Although during the 15th century links with England were weakened, in the 16th century Henry VIII declared himself king of Ireland. The Spanish helped the Irish, but they were defeated at Kinsale in 1603. In 1649, after the civil war ended, Cromwell invaded Ireland defeating the English Catholic and native Irish who had supported Charles I against Cromwell and the Parliament. The population in Ireland was reduced to less than a million. In 1680 monarchy was restored but there were confrontations. Irish Jacobites (supporters of James II, who was a Catholic) were defeated by Williamites (supporters of William de Orange). In the 18th century, Ireland was ruled by England but there were no Englishmen living there. At the end of the 18th century they demanded an Irish Parliament, which was set up in 1782. There were several uprisings until in 1801 the Irish Parliament was abolished and the Act of Union signed. During the 19th century there was massive emigration from Ireland due to a serious economic and political depression. In 1919 a Republican Government was established. In 1921, after the Anglo-Irish war, the Partition Treaty was signed, and Ireland became a free state in 1922. In 1937 Ireland became the Republic of Eire and severed her last links with Britain and the Commonwealth in 1949.

I. The foundation of the British Empire proceeded in four major stages:

• Private initiative, partly backed by the government for economic reasons:

 
• Exploration, adventure and piracy: Newfoundland (1498), Australia and New Zealand (1770).
• Trade and economic exploitation: Eastern Countries (16th-17th centuries), America (17th century) and Africa (19th century).
• Settlement (since the 15th century): North America, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Conquests and acquisitions in wars against European rivals (18th century): Jamaica, New York, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Hudson Bay, Gibraltar, Canada, Cape Colony, Ceylon, Guiana.

 
• Imperialism (19th century):

• Acquisition of strategic bases and trading posts: Malta, Singapore, Gulf of Aden, Hongkong, Suez Canal shares, Cyprus.
• Establishment of new colonies in the South Sea (New Zealand, British Malaya, British Borneo, Fiji Isles, British Guinea), Africa (Nile countries - Egypt, Sudan -, East Africa - Somaliland, Kenya, Uganda, Zanzibar, Socotra-, West Africa -Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, now Ghana, Nigeria, Gambia-, Central Africa - Rhodesia, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Nyasaland-, and South Africa - the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, Orange Free State-) and India (Central provinces, Assam, Sind, Punjab, Kashmir, Burma).

• Acquisitions in the World War I (League of Nations): Palestine, Iraq, Trans-Jordan, Tanganyika, Togoland and Cameroon.

 II. Development of the Commonwealth through granting of autonomy and equal status.

III. Disintegration of the Empire:

Many former British colonies were granted independence and broke their links with the Commonwealth (e.g. Middle East countries, some African and Asian countries,...). Others gained independence but remained members of the Commonwealth (Canada, Australia, Cyprus, Malta,...) whereas some other colonies have become dependent territories (e.g. Gibraltar, Bermuda, Hongkong,...). Thus, the Commonwealth of Nations is today a voluntary community of 50 independent nations with a combined population of over 1,000 million. The original link between the member countries was common allegiance to the Crown. The major white Commonwealth Countries (Canada, Australia and New Zealand) are still parliamentary monarchies under the British Crown. In most Asian and African member countries, however, the monarchy and the British Parliamentary system have gradually been replaced by presidential democracies tending towards dictatorships.